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The early modern period is a that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the , with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of . There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500–1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of global history, the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period.

Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start of the , the end of the , the in Germany giving rise to , and the beginning of the Age of Discovery and with it the onset of the first wave of European colonization. Its end is often marked by the French Revolution, and sometimes also the American Revolution or 's rise to power,Christopher Alan Bayly, The birth of the modern world, 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons (2004). P. 123. with the advent of the second wave modern colonization of .

Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading globalizing character. New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of , increasingly rapid technological progress, civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of .


Definition
The early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of European history: antiquity, the and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the . It was first picked up within the field of during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s.
(2025). 9781509540570, Polity.


Overview
At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. declined in Europe, and saw the end of the and of religious unity in Western Europe under the Roman Catholic Church. The old order was destabilized by the Protestant Reformation, which caused a backlash that expanded the and sparked the disastrous European wars of religion, which included the especially bloody Thirty Years' War and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the Peace of Westphalia. Along with the European colonization of the Americas, this period also contained the Commercial Revolution and the Golden Age of Piracy. The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian and maritime republics, particularly , , and . Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century. The took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth.Maddison, Angus (2001), The World Economy, Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Publishing, pp. 51–52.

As the Age of Revolution dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.Crawley, C.W. (1965). The new Cambridge modern history. Volume 9., War and peace in an age of upheaval, 1793–1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Goldman, E.O., & Eliason, L.C. (2003). The diffusion of military technology and ideas. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.Boot, M. (2006). War made new: Technology, warfare, and the course of history, 1500 to today. New York: Gotham Books. The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of in society, the American Revolution, and the first French Revolution; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the of the Congress of Vienna and the peace established by the Second Treaty of Paris, which ended the Napoleonic Wars.Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). Europe since 1815. American historical series, H. Holt and Company.

In the Americas, peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the , the Inca civilization, the Maya civilization and its cities, and the . The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the spread of Christianity around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the Columbian Exchange that linked the and the , greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the Atlantic slave trade and colonization of Native Americans began during this period.

(2025). 9780142002100, Penguin Books. .
The conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa.

In the , after the fall of the Timurid Renaissance, powers such as the Ottoman, , , and empires grew in strength (three of which are known as gunpowder empires for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the Indian subcontinent, Mughal architecture, culture, and reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of and worth 25% of global GDP. (2003): Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics, , , pp. 259–261 By the mid-18th century, India was a major proto-industrializing region.

(2025). 9780754664284, Ashgate Publishing.

Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere. In Japan, the from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the to the enthronement of King Gojong. By the 16th century, Asian economies under the and were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the Azuchi–Momoyama period.

Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Empire along with Ayutthaya experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia,

(2025). 9780521804967, Cambridge University Press.
(2025). 974957544X, Silkworm Books. 974957544X
with the Nguyen and Trinh lordsChapuis, Oscar. A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tự Đức. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. p. 119. de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas the Mataram Sultanate was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region.


Asia and Africa

East Asia
In early modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the early modern period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as and .


Chinese dynasties
Around the beginning of the (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them. Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei.
(2025). 9780230601215, Springer.
Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s.
(2025). 9781400874446, Princeton University Press.
China during the Ming dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year.
(2025). 9780674016859, Harvard University Press.

In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as and , also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed. The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century.

(1998). 9780520214743, University of California Press. .

China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels. Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of Spanish New World silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as . Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect from Japanese invasion.

(2025). 9780681502888, HarperCollins.
The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: Philip IV restricted shipments of exports from , the Japanese cut off all trade with , and the Dutch severed connections between and Macau.

The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as , to challenge Ming authority.

The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the , which would be the last dynasty of China. The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance.

(2025). 9780520928848, University of California Press.
The Manchus were formerly known as the . When Beijing was captured by 's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general and seized control of , which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of . Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues,
"A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."
(2025). 9780231500371, Columbia University Press. .


Japanese shogunates
The that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states".

Following contact with the Portuguese on Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the , European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion (), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a Western vocabulary) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced and valuable refined sugar.

(2025). 9789287157447, Council of Europe.

Central government was largely reestablished by and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with 's entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate, and it lasts until the coming to power of after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan (First edition, 1983), section "Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568–1600)" by George Elison, in the entry for "history of Japan". Tokugawa received the title of shōgun in 1603, establishing the Tokugawa shogunate.

The from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a regime of Japan established by and ruled by the shōguns of the . The period gets its name from the capital city, , now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in the late (often called the Late Tokugawa shogunate).

(2025). 9780810878723, Scarecrow Press. .

Society in the Japanese "Tokugawa period" (), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyōs (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the -caste of , with the , , and ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the policy.

(2025). 9780681502888, Borders Press in association with HarperCollins.
Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation.

In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. on the were set at fixed amounts which did not account for or other changes in value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.

(1998). 9780804709545, Stanford University Press.


Korean dynasty
In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul. The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity. King Sejong the Great (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the .
(2025). 9780791491300, State University of New York Press.

During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral , Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called . Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion. During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing dynasty. In 1637, King Injo was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince .

(1985). 9780520048041, University of California Press. .


South Asia

Indian empires
The rise of the is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an
(2025). 9780521522915, Cambridge University Press.
imperial power that ruled most of the area as by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries. The empire dominated , becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power,
(2025). 9781139498890, Cambridge University Press. .
with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe.
(2025). 9780415952798, . .
The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor , was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different . All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Confederacy, founded in the southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the Third Battle of Panipat halted their expansion in 1761.
(2025). 9781317459590, Routledge.


British and Dutch colonization
The development of saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in and ,
(1994). 9780198731122, Oxford University Press. .
(2025). 9780582317383, Pearson Education. .
or in 1772, when the company established a capital in , appointed its first Governor-General, , and became directly involved in governance.
(2025). 9780521863629, Cambridge University Press. .

The Maratha Confederacy, following the Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Rule by the Company lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and following the Government of India Act 1858, the assumed the task of directly administering India in the new . In 1819, established as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.


Southeast Asia
At the start of the modern era, the between India and China crossed , an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java. It was the last of the major empires of Maritime Southeast Asia and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history.M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia Since 1300, 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991. page 19 Its influence extended to , the , , and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated.
(1963). 9789401187787, Springer Netherlands.
(1968). 9789020074680, Van Hoeve.
Majapahit struggled to control the rising Sultanate of Malacca, which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528, the Sultanate of Johor was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca. While in Borneo, Brunei began their golden age during the reign of Sultan when he defeated the Kingdom of Tondo in the however but was paused when it fought the Spanish in the in 1578. It was later restarted again with the reign of Sultan Muhammad Hassan, later in 1660, Brunei's first civil war started and in the aftermath of said war it paused Brunei's golden age once again until the reign of Omar Ali Saifuddien I defeating the Sulu in the Twenty Years' War.


West Asia and North Africa

Ottoman Empire
During the early modern era, the enjoyed an expansion and consolidation of power, leading to a .
(2025). 9789004236240, Brill. .
(1975). 9780914710066, East European Quarterly. .
This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent Shi'a to the east.


North Africa
In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of , , and Tripolitania (between 1519 and 1551), remaining an independent state under the .
(2025). 9789382573470, Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. .


Safavid Iran
The was a great Shia Persianate empire after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east.Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77.Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, IB Tauris (30 March 2006). The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in , the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against the Safavids.
(2025). 9781610693899, ABC-CLIO.

What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The , which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia.


Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns
In the 16th to early 18th centuries, was under the rule of , and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local . Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the , , , , and . These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani, who was the Khan of the Uzbeks.

The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the dynasty. Afghanistan: History , U.S. Department of State (retrieved 10 October 2006). Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the and . Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad. The Pashtuns later formed the .


Sub-Saharan Africa
The took control of the trans-Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era. It seized in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to .Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988


Europe
Many major events caused to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of and the discovery of the in 1492, and 's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In the modern period is often dated to the start of the with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485.Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. Early modern British history, 1485–1760: a select bibliography, Historical Association, 1970 Early Modern Period (1485–1800) , Sites Organized by Period, Rutgers University Libraries Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

The early modern period is taken to end with the French Revolution, the , and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna. At the end of the early modern period, the British and empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of , while the three great empires of the early modern period, Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India and Qing China, all entered a period of stagnation or decline.


Gunpowder and firearms
When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms. The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s.
(2025). 9780521822749, Cambridge University Press.


European kingdoms and movements
In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was . The last was Francis II, who and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the . Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.

The was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.


Notable individuals
Johannes Gutenberg is credited as the first European to use , around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical . Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive (1543), which displaced the from the center of the universe.A Greek mathematician, Aristarchus of Samos, had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE. However, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline (Dreyer, 1953, pp. 135–148; Linton, 2004, p. 39). His book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) began modern and sparked the Scientific Revolution. Another notable individual was , an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern political science. Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, , a work of realist . The Swiss (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution
(2025). 9780128095591, Academic Press. .
while the Anglo-Irish was one of the founders of modern chemistry.
(2025). 9780801866104, JHU Press. .
In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely Leonardo da Vinci, , and ,
(2025). 9781934545041, The Oliver Press, Inc.. .
Albrecht Dürer (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance),
(2025). 9780740768729, Andrews McMeel Publishing. .
from the Venetian school,
(2025). 9781538152928, Rowman & Littlefield. .
Peter Paul Rubens of the Flemish Baroque traditions.
(2025). 9781683253594, Parkstone International. .
Famous composers included Guillaume Du Fay, , Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Claudio Monteverdi, Jean-Baptiste Lully.
(1990). 9780131897540, Prentice-Hall. .
(2025). 9781135950187, Routledge. .

Among the notable royalty of the time was Charles the Bold (1433–1477), the last Valois Duke of Burgundy, known as Charles the Bold (or Rash) to his enemies,The title was derived from his savage behavior against his enemies, and particularly from a war with France in late 1471: frustrated by the refusal of the French to engage in open battle, and angered by French attacks on his unprotected borders in Hainault and Flanders, Charles marched his army back from the Ile-de-France to Burgundian territory, burning over two thousand towns, villages and castles on his way—Taylor, Aline S. Isabel of Burgundy. Lanham, Md: Madison Books, c2001, pp. 212–213 His early death was a pivotal moment in European history.

(2025). 9781438104867, Infobase Publishing. .
Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit,
(2025). 9781782396000, Atlantic Books. .
although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations.
(2025). 9781136204067, Routledge. .
(2025). 9780851159188, Boydell Press. .
Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, Mary of Burgundy, as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor secured the match for his son, the future Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire
(2025). 9781317895701, Routledge. .
) and France ensued, culminating in the Treaty of Senlis (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482).
(2025). 9780191525889, OUP Oxford. .
The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance.

In Central Europe, King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe

(2025). 9781136639449, Routledge. .
) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy.
(2025). 9783039437511, MDPI. .
(2025). 9781780227160, Orion. .
In military area, he introduced the Black Army, one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.
(2025). 9780307428448, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. .
(2025). 9780231540612, Columbia University Press. .

Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),

(2025). 9781588396747, Metropolitan Museum of Art. .
Chevalier de Bayard (1476–1524),
(2025). 9782706114205, Presses universitaires de Grenoble. .
Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562).
(1993). 9783793006787, Rombach. .
Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare
(2025). 9781483364674, CQ Press. .
and communications,
(2025). 9783110456738, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. .
among others), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons) and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.
(2025). 9781526713773, Casemate Publishers. .
(2025). 9781000285048, Routledge. .


Christians and Christendom
Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the Counter Reformation.


End of the Crusades and Unity
The (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of in , concluding with the Battle of Grotniki. These wars were notable for being among the first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like , played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive.
(2025). 9780226424903, University of Chicago Press.

The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing and lift the Siege of Belgrade (1456), led by and Giovanni da Capistrano. The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of . The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day.

Nearly a century later, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ended the concept of a united Christian church. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio allowed rulers to determine their state's religion. This framework was solidified by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the European Wars of Religion and the notion of a singular Christian hegemony. The treaty also marked the birth of the modern concept of national sovereignty.

(2025). 9780674062313, Belknap Press.


Inquisitions and Reformations
The in the modern era refers to several institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with prosecuting and others who violated . The first significant manifestation was the Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834). The Inquisition prosecuted crimes such as sorcery, , , , and of printed literature. Its jurisdiction was limited to baptized Catholics, while non-Christians were typically tried by secular courts.

The and rise of in the early 16th century brought changes to . The Augustinian friar in Germany challenged the Church with his Ninety-five Theses, marking the start of the Reformation. Luther's movement, supported by the Electorate of Saxony, developed at the University of Wittenberg, where he became a professor.

(1966). 9780662278207, Time-Life Books. .

Luther's 95 Theses criticized practices like the sale of and sparked debates, leading to the rise of rival Protestant denominations, such as and the Reformed tradition. In England, the movement became known as the English Reformation, resulting in the formation of .

The Diet of Worms (1521) declared Luther a heretic, but Emperor Charles V was preoccupied with external threats and allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the Edict of Worms. The religious conflict escalated, leading to the formation of the Schmalkaldic League to defend Protestant interests. This culminated in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio—allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories.

(1996). 9780198201717, Oxford University Press.

Two main Inquisitions remained active in the modern era:

  • The Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821), similar to the Spanish Inquisition.Hansen, Joseph. Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
  • The Roman Inquisition (1542–circa 1860), covering most of the Italian peninsula and certain other areas.
The Counter-Reformation began in 1545 with the Council of Trent in response to the Protestant Reformation. Its goal was to reform internal Church practices while reaffirming the Church's authority as the true Church of Christ.Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0823212750.


Tsardom of Russia
In development of the ideas, the Grand Duke (the "Awesome"Frank D. McConnell. Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1979. ; Quote from p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan Groznyi, "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome", is precisely a man who has become a legend" or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first ("Caesar") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body () and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.
(2025). 9785170021420, AST.
(1981). 9780875690391, Academic Intl Pr. .
During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated ): Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River, and in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a , multiconfessional and transcontinental state.

Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of . Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling and pioneers of the New World. The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the border with the and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.


Mercantile capitalism

Trade and the new economy
In the , the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and . Western Europeans used the , new technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest.


Piracy's Golden Age
The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The period covers approximately the late 17th century. This period was characterized by Anglo-French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific.Konstam, Angus. Pirates: The Complete History from 1300 BC to the Present Day. Osprey Publishing, 2008. ISBN 9781846032400. The was a route followed by certain Anglo-American pirates in the early 18th century, involving voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea.Rediker, Marcus. Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Beacon Press, 2004. ISBN 9780807050255. The post-War of the Spanish Succession period saw many unemployed sailors and privateers turning to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean.Leeson, Peter T. The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates. Princeton University Press, 2009. ISBN 9780691137477.


European states and politics
The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such as Leonardo da Vinci and , who inspired the term "".BBC Science & Nature, Leonardo da Vinci (Retrieved on 12 May 2007)BBC History, Michelangelo (Retrieved on 12 May 2007)

The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ended the between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.


French power
Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include , Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Turenne, . French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including Molière, , Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Le Brun, , Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin Mansart, and Le Nôtre.


Early English revolutions
Before the Age of Revolution, the English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. The English Restoration, or simply put as the Restoration, began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 establishes modern parliamentary democracy in England.


International balance of power
The Peace of Utrecht established after a series of individual signed in the city of Utrecht concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and Philip V of Spain on the one hand, and representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain, the Duke of Savoy, and the on the other. The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of Louis XIV and preserved the European system based on the balance of power. The Treaty of Utrecht marked the change from to British naval supremacy.


Americas
The term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia and the .


Exploration and conquest of the Americas

Colonial Latin America
Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in . Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.


Colonial North America
North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in or the Caribbean islands. France, The Netherlands, and Great Britain held colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century, 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called (now New York State.). France colonized what is now , founding in 1608. France's loss in the Seven Years' War resulted in the transfer of to Great Britain.

The Thirteen Colonies, in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule through 1765–1783, due to various factors such as belief in natural rights, the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in, and opposition to monarchy. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on 4 July 1776, and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War, Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.


Atlantic World
A key development in early modern history is the creation of the as a category. The term generally encompasses Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It seeks to illustrate both local and regional developments, as well as the connections between these geographical regions through trade, migration, and cultural exchange.Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780521789783.


Religion, science, philosophy, and education

Protestant Reformation
The early modern period was initiated by the Reformation and the collapse of the unity of the medieval . The theology of in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of . Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.


Counter-Reformation and Jesuits
The Counter-Reformation was a period of Catholic revival in response to the during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical reforms as well as political and spiritual movements.

Such reforms included the foundation of for the proper training of priests, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with , including the and the French school of spirituality. It also involved political activities that included the Roman Inquisition.Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495-1540. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8232-1275-0.

New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the Capuchins, , , Discalced Carmelites, the , and especially the Jesuits strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church, and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.Ditchfield, Simon. "The Catholic Reformation." Renaissance Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, 2001, pp. 390-409. DOI:10.1111/1477-4658.00088.


Scientific Revolution
The in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world.

During the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, and replaced older methods of studying nature, which had relied on ancient texts by writers like Aristotle. By the time of the Revolution, these methods resulted in an accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from ancient Greece and Islamic scholars. Major changes during the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included:

  • The ancient of the (the other planets circle the Earth) was replaced by the (the planets circle the Sun). This shift, known as the Copernican Revolution, is marked by the 1543 publication of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Copernicus' work, influenced by earlier scholars such as Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi, sparked a significant paradigm shift. The resisted this theory, and the famously imprisoned for promoting it.
  • Using precise astronomical observations by , developed Kepler's laws of planetary motion, demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles. The idea that the stars were fixed on celestial spheres was replaced by the idea that stars are distant suns. Astrology and astronomy began to separate into different disciplines, with only using scientific methods. technology improved tremendously as did the study of optics.
  • Aristotle's laws of motion were replaced by Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. The 1687 publication of 's Principia Mathematica is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution, as it established the fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries.
  • Advances in anatomy were marked by the publication of De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (1543) by , which revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy and corrected errors in the works of . In 1628, 's De Motu Cordis advanced knowledge of the circulatory system.
  • Both the 8th century Islamic experimenter Jabir ibn Hayyan and the 17th century scientist have been described as founders of modern . Both worked as before the fields were clearly separated. Boyle argued for corpuscularianism in the 1661 book The Sceptical Chymist and discovered Boyle's law of gases. The chemical revolution followed with the discovery of the conservation of mass, which led to the rejection of phlogiston theory and the identification of chemical elements.
  • Modern scientific was founded by , who is credited with pioneering dental techniques in his 1728 work Le Chirurgien Dentiste.
  • The was invented in the 1770s and popularized by in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.
  • The ancient theory of spontaneous generation remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the history of evolutionary thought includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial was famously promoted by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.
  • The invention of the led to the development of , with early observations of microorganisms by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s.
  • published the first modern taxonomy in (1735), introducing the classification of organisms into hierarchical categories and replacing Aristotle's ideas.
  • Early modern was established with the work of , who proposed the law of superposition in 1669, and the systematic study of fossils and rock types began to question the biblical age of the Earth.
  • Early developments in the history of electromagnetism included research into the relationship between and , the development of the electrostatic generator, and the discovery of Coulomb's law in 1784, which described the force between electric charges.

In the :

  • Historical linguistics began in the late 18th century, with William Jones identifying the common origin of what are now called Indo-European languages.
  • The fields of and paleoanthropology emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered scientific racism.
  • 's work, such as his seminal book The Wealth of Nations, has been interpreted as the foundation of classical economics.


Technology
Inventions of the early modern period included the floating dock, , , , , , and . Early attempts at building a practical electrical telegraph were hindered because static electricity was the only source available.


Enlightenment and reason
The Age of Enlightenment is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a departure from the medieval tradition of , which was rooted in Christian dogma, and from Renaissance philosophy's occultist approaches. Instead, reason became the central source of knowledge, initiating the era of modern philosophy, especially in Western philosophy.Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0198206088. This period in Europe was characterized by system-builders—philosophers who established unified theories of , , , , and sometimes even and the physical sciences.Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0521546812.

Early 17th-century philosophy is often referred to as the Age of Rationalism, succeeding Renaissance philosophy and preceding the Enlightenment. Some consider it the earliest part of the Enlightenment, stretching over two centuries. This era includes the works of (1643–1727), such as Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), and the development of Descartes' famous proposition Cogito, ergo sum (1637).Gaukroger, Stephen. Descartes: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0198239949. The first major advancements in modern science included Newton's theory of , which, along with the contributions of , , , and others, fueled the Enlightenment.Jacob, Margaret C. The Scientific Revolution: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. ISBN 978-0312539481.

The 18th century saw the rise of in Europe, notably following the French Revolution. classified his predecessors into two philosophical schools: and . The former was represented by figures such as René Descartes, , and Gottfried Leibniz.Gardner, Sebastian. Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 978-0415119099. established the colony of Providence Plantations in New England on the principle of separation of church and state after being exiled by the of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.Barry, John M. Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul. Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670023059.

French salon culture played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, culminating in the influential Encyclopédie (1751–72), edited by with contributions from thinkers such as and .Proust, Jacques. Diderot et l'Encyclopédie. A. Colin, 1962. The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns stirred debate within the , elevating contemporary knowledge over classical Greek and Roman wisdom. Enlightenment thought also significantly influenced German philosophy, fostered by Frederick the Great, with emerging as a leading figure. These developments also had profound impacts on the Scottish Enlightenment, Russian Enlightenment, Enlightenment in Spain, and Enlightenment in Poland.Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 978-0333964500. The Enlightenment flourished until around 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to and the growing influence of Counter-Enlightenment movements.Berlin, Isaiah. Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas. Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0691090269.


Humanism
With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian Renaissance Humanism spread northward to France, Germany, Holland and England, where it became associated with the Reformation.

Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the studia humanitatis, a novel curriculum that was competing with the and .Paul Oskar Kristeller, Humanism, pp. 113–114, in Charles B. Schmitt, (editors), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy (1990).

In France, pre-eminent Humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code. Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for Francis I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the italic=no). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic,She was the author of Miroir de l'âme pécheresse ( The Mirror of a Sinful Soul), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, King's sister—queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network ( Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) (v. 1), (v. 2) gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard and François Rabelais.


Death in the early modern period

Mortality rates
During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900, Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.
(2025). 9780262025515, The MIT Press.


European infant mortality rates
Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s. These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.

For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in , there were 140–190 infant deaths reported for every 1,000 births. In France, reported 140–160 infants dying per every 1,000 babies born. In what is now Italy, averaged 134 infant deaths per 1,000 births. In , 80–110 infants died per every 1,000 babies born. In Sweden, 70–95 infants died per 1,000 births in Linköping, 48 infants died per 1,000 births in , and 41 infants died per 1,000 births in .


Causes of infant mortality
Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, climate is clearly the most important determinant of death". Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to.

For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter. This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the Italian winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer". According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions. This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".


Capital punishment
During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented.
(2025). 9780691157788, Princeton University.
The number of criminals executed by increased,
(2025). 9781137577931 .
as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.


See also


Works cited

External links

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